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Hetian Jade: The House of Nephrite

From the Kunlun it came, and warmed the world. This volume is compiled principally upon the monograph "Hetian Jade of Xinjiang, China" (Wang Shiqi et al., Science Press) and national standard GB/T 38821-2020, presenting in eleven chapters the nomenclature, the eight colour classes, composition, structure, physical properties, occurrence, deposits, quality grading and authentication of nephrite. Book plates await licensing and are marked as placeholders.

I · NAMES II · COLOURS III · COMPOSITION IV · STRUCTURE V · PROPERTIES VI · OCCURRENCE VII · DEPOSITS VIII · GRADING IX · AUTHENTICATION X · PROVENANCE XI · SOURCES
Chapter I

Names & Nomenclature

The stone has borne many names across three millennia: "jade of the Yuzhi" and "jade of the Kunlun" in pre-Qin texts, "Yutian jade" after Zhang Qian opened the Western Regions, "Hetian jade" in its modern form since 1959. In the West, "nephrite" (kidney-stone) was coined in 1789; in 1863 Alexis Damour first separated nephrite from jadeite by chemical analysis, and the paired terms entered Chinese scholarship in 1918 through Zhang Hongzhao's Shi Ya. The "soft/hard" labels mark a hair's difference of hardness (6–6.5 vs 6.5–7 Mohs) — never of quality.

The national standards evolved in four steps — from GB/T 16552—1996 (listing "nephrite") through the 2003 edition (adding "Hetian jade" as a non-geographic name) and 2010/2017 revisions, to the dedicated GB/T 38821—2020, which fixes eight colour classes: white, greenish-white, qing, spinach-green, yellow, sugar, black and cui-green jade. This archive follows that canon, and distinguishes Hetian jade in the broad sense (all qualifying tremolite jade, origin-neutral) from the strict sense — the 1,300-kilometre Kunlun–Altun belt of Xinjiang, from Tashkurgan east to Ruoqiang.

Chapter II

The Eight Colours & Their Causes

Colours divide into primary (white, qing, yellow, black, green) and secondary (sugar). Pure tremolite is colourless; as Fe²⁺ replaces Mg²⁺ at the M1/M3 lattice sites the hue deepens from white through greenish-white to qing — nephrite's fundamental law of colour. Each class below carries a documented exemplar and its colour genesis.

白玉鼻烟壶，脂白凝润，狮首衔环耳、玛瑙盖

Mutton-Fat WhiteYANGZHI BAI YU

Defined by "four highs" — unctuousness, whiteness, fineness, purity — with a faint warm cast allowed. Almost exclusively from seed pebbles; the sole mountain material conceded mutton-fat rank is the "95 Yutian" lode of 1995. No national standard yet exists; the monograph calls for one.

White jade snuff bottle with lion-mask ring handles and agate stopper · chinesejade.org catalogue No. 10001
和田白玉手串，色白质纯、油润凝脂

White JadeBAI YU

Nearly pure tremolite with minimal iron substitution (no 3658 cm⁻¹ Raman band). Folk grades: fish-belly, pear-blossom, moon white. Its purity and density give the highest hardness of all classes (avg 6.39).

Hetian white jade bead bracelet · chinesejade.org catalogue No. 10003
青白玉貔貅摆件，温润内敛，圆雕带云纹

Greenish WhiteQINGBAI YU

The transition class between white and qing, ranked separately for its abundance. Moderate Fe²⁺ substitution (3675/3661 cm⁻¹ bands emerging). The most numerous among surviving works.

Greenish-white jade pixiu · chinesejade.org catalogue No. 10002
青玉仿古螭龙纹圭形佩，色如晚黛，深沉内敛

Qing (Grey-Green)QING YU

Deepest Fe²⁺ substitution (Fe rising from 1,336 ppm in white to 17,309 ppm in dark qing); the most abundant class, in great block sizes. Folk names run from shrimp to willow to crab-shell green; "oleaster green" ranks first.

Qing-jade gui-form pendant with archaistic chi-dragon scrolls · chinesejade.org catalogue No. 10004
碧玉猫眼戒面，金镶钻，眼线随光晃动

Spinach GreenBI YU

The only class born of altered ultramafics; actinolite-dominant, its green led by Fe²⁺ with Cr, Mn, Ni assisting, chromite dots its birthmark. Densest of all (avg 3.00). Market rule: for spinach alone, the more translucent the better.

Spinach-jade cat's-eye ring, gold with pavé diamonds · chinesejade.org catalogue No. 10005
黄玉牌吊坠 / Yellow jade plaque pendant

Yellow JadeHUANG YU

A primary colour, chiefly from Ruoqiang; Fe and Mn jointly at work, the yellow strengthening as Fe³⁺/Fe²⁺ falls. "Chicken-fat yellow" rivals mutton-fat in worth. Once seed-only; Ruoqiang "huangkou" mountain and Gobi material now supplements it.

Yellow jade plaque pendant · User-supplied image; AI-extended background
和田玉借糖色巧雕坠

Sugar JadeTANG YU

The sole secondary colour: XRD confirms goethite FeO(OH) staining along grain boundaries and micro-fissures. Local standard grades by sugar coverage: trace <5%, present 5–30%, sugar-X 30–85%, sugar jade >85%. Carvers turn the tint to advantage; the sugar-white of Tashsayi, Qiemo, is the most celebrated.

Hetian pendant carved to exploit the sugar skin · Lê Phạm Gia Hy · CC BY-SA 4.0
黑白玉雕摆件，配木座 / Black-and-white jade carving on a wooden stand

Black JadeMO YU

Market "black jade" is threefold: graphite black (graphite inclusions; ≥85% is full black, less is "blue-flower" — dot, streak or cluster ink; pyrite-bearing pieces are "gold-star"); black-qing and black-bi (iron-rich actinolite, glowing qing or green against strong light). Density, hardness and transmitted colour tell them apart.

Black-and-white jade carving · User-supplied image; AI-extended background
On "red jade": despite the trade saw "first red, second yellow, third black, fourth mutton-fat", the monograph's survey of over a hundred lode deposits found no primary red nephrite — every "red jade" proves a fully red-skinned seed pebble, white or sugar within. Conclusion: primary red nephrite does not exist. And cui-green jade, the standard's newly listed eighth class, owes its vivid green to Cr³⁺ (twin absorption bands at 450/650 nm); long known from Qinghai and Russia, it was found in Xinjiang at Saidikulamu, Yutian, in 2016 — its graphite inclusions the Xinjiang signature.
Saidikulamu cui-green jade
Saidikulamu cui-green nephrite rough, vivid green patches on a white body
Cui-green rough ISaidikulamu, Yutian, Xinjiang
Second view of the Saidikulamu cui-green rough, green shading into the white body
Cui-green rough IISaidikulamu, Yutian, Xinjiang
Specimens from the site owner's collection (2026-09)
Six blue-flower (qinghua) nephrite reference slabs, QH1601–QH1606, graphite-black patterns on white, each with a 1 cm scale bar
Blue-flower (qinghua) nephrite reference slabsReference slabs QH1601–QH1606, 1 cm scale bars; the graphite colouring runs from dots and streaks to clustered ink. Specimens from the site owner's collection (2026-09)
The "95 Yutian": rough and mine
The “95 Yutian” white nephrite lode rough, fine white material on a black studio ground
White lode roughYutian, Xinjiang · the 1995 batch
An adit at the Yutian jade mines, miners at work in the white host rock
The mine aditYutian, Xinjiang
The legendary 1995 batch of white lode nephrite from Yutian, Xinjiang — whiteness and lustre that set the benchmark for lode material; right, an adit at the Yutian mines. Photographs from the site owner (2026-09)
Chapter III

Composition

Nephrite is a dense aggregate of the tremolite–actinolite series, tremolite typically above 95%, formula Ca₂(Mg,Fe)₅[Si₄O₁₁]₂(OH)₂. By the IMA amphibole rule, Mg/(Mg+Fe)≥0.90 defines tremolite: white, greenish-white and yellow jade are nearly pure tremolite; qing deepens as iron rises; spinach-green and the "black-qing / black-bi" jades are dominated by actinolite.

Accessory minerals, though under 5%, number over twenty — diopside, calcite, apatite, epidote, chlorite, zoisite, graphite, allanite, prehnite, phlogopite, serpentine, quartz, plagioclase, pyrite, magnetite, chromite and secondary Fe–Mn oxides. They account for the trade's "bone", "cotton" and "black spots": white flecks are mostly epidote and coarse tremolite porphyroblasts; black dots are chromite in spinach jade (Cr₂O₃ up to 45–65%) and graphite in "blue-flower" black jade. Two parent-rock types exist: altered Ca–Mg carbonate (dolomitic marble — yielding white, qing, yellow, sugar, black) and altered ultramafic rock (serpentinite — yielding spinach green).

Tremolite under the electron microscope
SEM secondary-electron image: bundles of acicular-columnar tremolite at 3300×, 10 μm scale
Fibrous tremolite (3300×)SE image · scale 10 μm
SEM secondary-electron image: interwoven tremolite fibres at 1300×, 20 μm scale
Interwoven fabric (1300×)SE image · scale 20 μm
SEM secondary-electron images (15.00 kV, taken 14 Jan 2019): fibrous to acicular-columnar tremolite with splintery fracture — the intergrowth that builds nephrite's felted fabric. After Wang Shiqi et al., Hetian Jade of Xinjiang, China, Science Press, fig. 2-6
Accessory minerals I: diopside, calcite, apatite
Diopside in nephrite, vivid interference colours under crossed polars
DiopsideCrossed polars · 500 μm · fig. 2-7
Calcite (Cal) in nephrite under BSE, with chlorite (Chl) in a tremolite (Tr) groundmass
CalciteBSE image · 100 μm · fig. 2-8
Apatite in nephrite under crossed polars
ApatiteCrossed polars · 400 μm · fig. 2-9
After Wang Shiqi et al., Hetian Jade of Xinjiang, China, Science Press, figs. 2-7 – 2-9
Epidote in nephrite
Granular epidote in nephrite, crossed polars
Granular epidoteCrossed polars · 800 μm · fig. 2-10a
Prismatic epidote in nephrite, crossed polars
Prismatic epidoteCrossed polars · 200 μm · fig. 2-10b
After Wang Shiqi et al., Hetian Jade of Xinjiang, China, Science Press, fig. 2-10
Chlorite in tremolite
Chlorite (Chl) in tremolite (Tr), colourless in plane-polarised light
Colourless chloritePlane-polarised · 200 μm · fig. 2-11a
Chlorite replacing tremolite while keeping its orientation, crossed polars
Replacing tremoliteCrossed polars · 200 μm · fig. 2-11b
After Wang Shiqi et al., Hetian Jade of Xinjiang, China, Science Press, fig. 2-11
Zoisite in nephrite
A zoisite (Zo) inclusion in nephrite, plane-polarised light
A zoisite inclusionPlane-polarised · 500 μm · fig. 2-12a
Late zoisite cross-cutting an earlier generation, crossed polars
Late cross-cutting earlyCrossed polars · 40 μm · fig. 2-12b
After Wang Shiqi et al., Hetian Jade of Xinjiang, China, Science Press, fig. 2-12
Accessory minerals III: allanite, prehnite, serpentine
Prismatic allanite (Aln) in nephrite, crossed polars, in a tremolite (Tr-III) groundmass
AllaniteCrossed polars · 800 μm · fig. 2-13
Prehnite (Prh) in Yinggelieke nephrite as a relict of replacement, BSE image
PrehniteBSE image · 20 μm · fig. 2-14
Serpentine in nephrite, fibrous aggregates under crossed polars
SerpentineCrossed polars · fig. 2-15
After Wang Shiqi et al., Hetian Jade of Xinjiang, China, Science Press, figs. 2-13 – 2-15
Accessory minerals IV: plagioclase, limonite
Plagioclase (Pl) in nephrite replaced by fine tremolite (Tr), BSE image, with epidote (Ep)
PlagioclaseBSE image · 60 μm · fig. 2-16
Limonite in nephrite, yellow-brown bands in plane-polarised light
LimonitePlane-polarised light · fig. 2-17
After Wang Shiqi et al., Hetian Jade of Xinjiang, China, Science Press, figs. 2-16 – 2-17
Chromite in spinach jade
The black specks of chromite typical of spinach jade, plane-polarised light
Plane-polarised light200 μm · fig. 2-18a
Chromite in spinach jade, crossed polars
Crossed polars200 μm · fig. 2-18b
After Wang Shiqi et al., Hetian Jade of Xinjiang, China, Science Press, fig. 2-18
Chapter IV

Texture & Fabric

Four structural families: crystalloblastic (by grain size — micro-coarse >0.1mm, micro-fine 0.01–0.1mm, cryptocrystalline <0.01mm, the last most typical of Xinjiang nephrite; by arrangement — felted-interwoven, micro-fibrous, whisk-like, fibre-bundled, radial and porphyroblastic, the felted fabric of randomly interlocked fibres marking the finest, most even jade); metasomatic (pseudomorph, relict, corroded, rimmed); dynamic (oriented, deformed — shear stress refines the grain and lifts quality, but excess stress causes foliation); and secondary-infill (dendritic, net-veined, tiger-skin, vortical — iron minerals along fissures, whose enrichment makes sugar jade).

At hand-specimen scale the fabric is chiefly massive (even and dense); foliated fabric from late directed stress splits readily and demands caution when buying rough. The finer the fibres and the tighter their interlock, the greater the toughness — the structural root of nephrite's supremacy.

Micro-coarse-grained (>0.1 mm) Micro-fine-grained (0.01–0.1 mm) Cryptocrystalline (<0.01 mm) By grain size Columnar Fibrous By grain shape Equigranular Inequigranular By grain distribution Felted interwoven fibrous (micro-crystalline) Micro-fibrous (micro-fine-grained) Whisk-like Fibre-bundled Radial Porphyroblastic By mutual relations & fabric arrangement Crystalloblastic Pseudomorphic Relict Corroded ("silkworm-eaten") Rimmed (corona) Metasomatic Oriented Deformed Dynamic Dendritic Net-veined Tiger-skin Vortical Secondary infill Structure of Nephrite
The principal structural types of nephrite — classification after Wang Shiqi et al., Hetian Jade of Xinjiang, China (Science Press)
Photomicrographs of six crystalloblastic structures of nephrite under crossed polarised light: felted fibrous, micro-fibrous, whisk-like, fibre-bundled, radial and porphyroblastic
Crystalloblastic structures of nephrite under crossed polarsa. felted fibrous　b. micro-fibrous　c. whisk-like　d. fibre-bundled　e. radial　f. porphyroblastic. Scale bars 400 μm (f, 200 μm).
After Wang Shiqi et al., Hetian Jade of Xinjiang, China, Science Press, fig. 2-24
Chapter V

Physical Properties

Data below are the book's laboratory measurements on dozens of documented Xinjiang samples (spot refractometry, hydrostatic weighing, micro-indentation, rock-mechanics testing).

PropertyMeasured rangeNotes
Refractive index1.60 – 1.62（avg 1.61）White 1.60–1.61; qing & spinach up to 1.62; graphite-black slightly lower
Specific gravity2.86 – 3.06（avg 2.96）White 2.94 → qing 2.97 → spinach 3.00 → black-bi 3.02, rising with iron
Mohs (from Vickers)5.29 – 6.90（avg 6.07）White highest (avg 6.39, max 6.90); spinach lowest (5.86); finer fibre = harder
Relative toughness9 / 10Highest of all jades, second only to carbonado; jadeite & corundum rate 8
Compressive strength368 – 445 MPa（avg 398）"Extremely hard" rock class; cf. Xiuyan 224, dense quartzite jade 317, marble jade 65
Tensile strength21.6 – 62.9 MPa（avg 42）Exceeds the 36 MPa ceiling of common rocks; striking when fissure-free
Lustre / diaphaneityGreasy; subtranslucentThe greasy lustre is nephrite's signature, mutton-fat its acme
Occurrence and hardness: measurements rank seed 6.44 > Gobi 6.41 > shanliushui 6.28 > mountain 5.90 — aeons of transport culled the weak and left only the dense, sparsely fissured best, a mechanical footnote to the adage "seed above all".
Samples compared by grain size and hardness Within each colour class, the finer the fabric the harder the stone — measured evidence for the rule that finer, more complexly interwoven fibres yield greater hardness and toughness.
Variety Sample Origin Grain size Texture (×100) Mohs Hm
White jadeZL2 Hotan Fine Photomicrograph of nephrite texture at ×100 magnification（ZL2） 6.44
2014HT006 Hotan Medium Photomicrograph of nephrite texture at ×100 magnification（2014HT006） 6.10
Qing jade2015HT013 Hotan Medium Photomicrograph of nephrite texture at ×100 magnification（2015HT013） 6.25
2015HT021 Hotan Coarse Photomicrograph of nephrite texture at ×100 magnification（2015HT021） 5.90
Spinach jade2014RQB001 Ruoqiang Fine Photomicrograph of nephrite texture at ×100 magnification（2014RQB001） 6.39
HTB001 Hotan Medium-coarse Photomicrograph of nephrite texture at ×100 magnification（HTB001） 6.02
Test load 100 N; measured at the Gemmological Teaching Laboratory, School of Gemmology, China University of Geosciences (Beijing).
Data after Wang Shiqi et al., Hetian Jade of Xinjiang, China, Science Press, table 3-7

Sugar-jade and white-jade cat's-eyes — the book records the first chatoyant sugar and white nephrite, from the Jinshan mine at Qiemo: parallel tremolite-asbestos fibres, cut en cabochon, throw a bright mobile eye-line. All previous nephrite cat's-eyes came from serpentinite-type spinach deposits (Taiwan, Sichuan, Russia); this is the first from an altered-marble deposit, opening a new prospecting direction.

Nephrite cat's-eyesParallel tremolite-asbestos fibres, cut en cabochon across the fibre direction, throw a bright line that travels as the light moves. The sugar and white cat's-eyes of Qiemo come from an altered-marble deposit — the first ever recorded; every nephrite cat's-eye known before came from serpentinite-hosted spinach jade.
Sugar-jade cat's-eye cabochon from Qiemo, russet-brown with a bright eye-line
Sugar-jade cat's-eyeQiemo, Xinjiang · fig. 3-7
White-jade cat's-eye cabochon from Qiemo — the first recorded in white nephrite
White-jade cat's-eyeQiemo, Xinjiang · fig. 3-8
Spinach-jade cat's-eye cabochon from Russia, deep green, from a serpentinite-hosted deposit
Spinach-jade cat's-eyeRussia · fig. 3-9
After Wang Shiqi et al., Hetian Jade of Xinjiang, China, Science Press, figs. 3-7 – 3-9
Chapter VI

Four Occurrences, Seed Above All

Once the lode is unroofed, weathering and transport spin a graded lineage of secondary deposits. Quality being equal, value ranks: seed > Gobi > shanliushui > mountain.

Mountain (Shan)PRIMARY

Quarried from the lode, in weathered (net-veined brown rinds) and fresh sub-types; large angular blocks of variable grade, the stock of monumental carving.

ShanliushuiSUB-ALLUVIAL

Residual-slope material (residual, colluvial and glacial): lightly worn, sub-angular, locally skinned. Glacial boulders come off high-glacier fronts — famously Heishan at Hotan, and a 60-tonne qing boulder below Muztagh's north slope.

Seed (Zi)ALLUVIAL

River-milled for aeons — dragged, rolled, saltated — until only the dense heart survives as a streamlined pebble. Its passport: the skins (autumn-pear, jujube-red, tiger, lamp-soot) and surface textures (orange-peel, "sweat pores", impact marks). Chiefly from the middle-lower White Jade and Karakash rivers, their terraces and fan palaeochannels.

GobiAEOLIAN

Slope material flushed onto piedmont gravel plains and sand-blasted for millennia into rippled satin skins — pomelo, orange, roe or satin grained; flat and sub-angular (mean length:thickness 3.8). Pishan yields most, Qira's southern belt is most famed; the Gobi setting is unique to Xinjiang.

Chapter VII

Deposits & the Metallogenic Belt

The Kunlun–Altun belt is the eastern reach of the trans-Asian Turkey–Afghanistan–Pakistan gem belt: 1,260 km from Tashkurgan to the Qinghai border (1,380 km along the arc), 20–150 km wide, bowed around the southern Tarim rim. Drawing on the national resource survey, the monograph divides it into three sub-belts — West Kunlun, East Kunlun and Altun — comprising 39 ore-cluster groups and 134 known deposits and occurrences.

The lodes formed by magmatic-hydrothermal contact metasomatism — fluids from intermediate-acid intrusions reworking dolomitic marble at the outer contact; most lack true magnesian skarn, so "skarn-type" is a misnomer. Spinach green forms instead where fluids rework serpentinised ultramafics.

Alamas Group · YutianLARGE · WHITE & GREENISH-WHITE · SUPERB

Mines 65–67 on the upper Keriya, worked for two centuries; the Republican-era "Qi Family Pit" stood here, its white jade the finest of lode material. Nearby Saidikulamu yields cui-green.

Hanilake Group · YutianLARGE · GREENISH-WHITE · FINE

Source of the legendary "95 Yutian" of 1995 — the only lode material conceded mutton-fat rank, now exhausted; Qihakule's blue-flower black jade is its other signature.

Tashsayi Group · QiemoSUPER-LARGE · SUGAR-WHITE · EXCELLENT

The belt's sole "super-large" cluster (5,000-tonne class), capital of sugar-white; Jinshan nearby yields the cat's-eyes. Mirdai (Yecheng), Tatelike-su (Qiemo), Muztagh spinach and Ruoqiang yellow each hold their own fame.

Geological map of Xinjiang's nephrite metallogenic belts: strata and intrusives of every age colour-coded along the Kunlun–Altun line, with deposit clusters ringed and numbered
Nephrite metallogenic belts and deposit clusters of XinjiangLegend: 1. Archaean–Proterozoic; 2. Lower Palaeozoic; 3. Upper Palaeozoic; 4. Mesozoic; 5. Cenozoic; 6. intermediate–acid intrusives; 7. mafic–ultramafic rocks; 8. deposit-cluster limits and numbers; 9. faults; 10. extent of the nephrite metallogenic belt and sub-belts; 11. major placer deposits and numbers; 12. rivers bearing placer jade.
Drawn by Han Hongwei. After Wang Shiqi et al., Hetian Jade of Xinjiang, China, Science Press, fig. 6-9
Sketch of ore vein No. I at Tashisayi Ying'alik: greenish-white and white nephrite bodies (red) running as bands through tremolitised marble, metre-scaled
Sketch of ore vein No. I at Tashisayi Ying'alikLegend: 1. tremolite–diopside marble; 2. tremolitised marble; 3. epidote–zoisite–serpentine–diopside marble; 4. tremolite–actinolite–talc marble; 5. greenish-white nephrite; 6. white nephrite; 7. reverse fault; 8. fissures. The red bodies (5, 6) are the nephrite veins, bedded within the altered marbles (1–4). After Wang Shiqi et al., Hetian Jade of Xinjiang, China, Science Press, fig. 6-41
Chapter VIII

The Eight Measures of Quality

The monograph grades by eight factors — colour, texture, lustre, diaphaneity, clarity, fissures, weight, occurrence — into four classes overall. Judge colour by noon daylight: lamplight flatters, as the proverb warns.

FactorHow it is judged
Colour · hueValue order: white > yellow > green > black/sugar > qing; then saturation (white/black the fuller the better, chromatic hues best at 7–8/10), brightness, trueness, evenness
TextureCryptocrystalline — grain felt rather than seen; four ranks from very fine to coarse
LustreGreasy lustre reigns (strong/medium/weak); waxy and porcelain follow. Nine millennia of "warm and unctuous" mean precisely this
DiaphaneityOpposite to jadeite: subtranslucency is ideal — too clear loses the unction. Two exceptions: graphite black (the blacker the better) and spinach (the clearer the better)
ClarityFlaws come as dots (chromite, graphite), patches and cotton wisps; the fewer and fainter the better, four ranks
Fissures"Nine seeds in ten are cracked"; distinguish open fissures from healed stone-lines and water-lines. Beware dealers calling cracks "lines"
WeightQuality equal, bigger is dearer — fine jade sells by the gram, middling by the kilo, common by the tonne
OccurrenceSeed > Gobi > shanliushui > mountain; first-class white calls for >5 kg lode or >2 kg seed, strong greasy lustre, subtranslucent, clean and crack-free
Chapter IX

Authentication: Five Kinds of Counterfeit

Five counterfeit families haunt the market: look-alike stones, glass and plastic imitations, faked seed pebbles, faked Gobi pieces, and composites. Each betrays itself.

StoneLustre / textureR.I.S.G.MohsQuick tell
Nephrite (reference)Greasy · cryptocrystalline1.61±2.95±6–6.5Splintery fracture, hefts heavy
Quartzite jadeVitreous · granular1.54±2.64–2.76–7Too translucent, light in hand
ChalcedonyVitreous · cryptocrystalline1.53–1.542.65±6.5–7Conchoidal fracture, semi-transparent
Serpentine (Xiuyan)Waxy–vitreous1.56–1.572.57±2.5–6A pocket knife scratches it
Marble ("Afghan jade")Vitreous · granular1.48–1.652.7±3Fizzes violently in dilute HCl
Albite jadeVitreous · granular1.52–1.532.6–2.636±"Foam" specks against the light
Brucite jadeVitreous · cryptocrystalline1.57±2.3–2.62.5±Feather-light, scratches at once
Wollastonite jadeVitreous · cryptocrystalline1.60–1.612.78–2.914.5–5Closest mimic on paper — but soft and never unctuous

Faked Seed PebblesROLLED & DYED

Tumbled lode rough with dyed "skin". True skin seeps along fissures, fading inward, its sweat-pores irregular; fake colour floats, pooling harshly in hollows, with parallel polish marks on the rounding. Beware half-genuine "beautified" pebbles — inspect the whole stone.

Faked Gobi PiecesBLASTED & WAXED

True Gobi stones are flat and sub-angular (length:thickness ≈ 3.8), their etch-grain — pomelo, orange, roe or satin — varying face to face, with fine healed cracks and silt lodged in the hollows; machine-blasted fakes show uniform pitting and no silt, and a whole batch of rounded "Gobi" is itself the warning.

Composites & GlassUV & BUBBLES

Composites hide poor stone under good: hunt the join and the glue — cement fluoresces violet-blue under UV. Glass "jade" (a lineage running from Warring-States glass to the Yuan court's imitation-jade bureau) shows bubbles, conchoidal fracture, vitreous flash, and warms too fast in the hand.

Natural vs "reshaped" seed pebbles
A bracelet of natural nephrite seed pebbles, rounded forms with natural skin
Natural seed-pebble braceletfig. 8-43
A
"Reshaped" pebble braceletfig. 8-44
A natural
Natural soot-skin pebblefig. 8-45
After Wang Shiqi et al., Hetian Jade of Xinjiang, China, Science Press, figs. 8-43 – 8-45
Re-coloured "beautified" pebbles
A re-coloured
A re-coloured pebblefig. 8-46
Surface of re-coloured material, panel a: dye gathering along fissures, the colour unnatural
Surface of re-coloured material Ifig. 8-47a
Surface of re-coloured material, panel b: dye gathering along fissures, the colour unnatural
Surface of re-coloured material IIfig. 8-47b
Surface of re-coloured material, panel c: dye gathering along fissures, the colour unnatural
Surface of re-coloured material IIIfig. 8-47c
After Wang Shiqi et al., Hetian Jade of Xinjiang, China, Science Press, figs. 8-46 – 8-47
Gobi material: natural and imitated
Natural Gobi material, wind-etched grain flowing naturally over an uneven face
Natural Gobi materialfig. 8-48
Imitation Gobi material, the worked surface mechanical and lacking natural etch relief
Imitation Gobi materialfig. 8-49
A reference set of natural Gobi jade — black, spinach, yellow and white pieces of every form
Natural Gobi jade piecesfig. 8-50
After Wang Shiqi et al., Hetian Jade of Xinjiang, China, Science Press, figs. 8-48 – 8-50
Imitation Gobi material ground from lode jade
Imitation Gobi material ground from lode jade, panel a: a large block with contrived etching
Imitation Ifig. 8-51a
Imitation Gobi material ground from lode jade, panel b: a large block with contrived etching
Imitation IIfig. 8-51b
After Wang Shiqi et al., Hetian Jade of Xinjiang, China, Science Press, fig. 8-51
Natural surface features of Gobi material
Natural Gobi surface, panel a: directional wind-etched pitting
Natural surface Ifig. 8-52a
Natural Gobi surface, panel b: directional wind-etched pitting
Natural surface IIfig. 8-52b
Natural Gobi surface, panel c: directional wind-etched pitting
Natural surface IIIfig. 8-52c
Natural Gobi surface, panel d: directional wind-etched pitting
Natural surface IVfig. 8-52d
Natural Gobi surface, panel e: directional wind-etched pitting
Natural surface Vfig. 8-52e
Natural Gobi surface, panel f: directional wind-etched pitting
Natural surface VIfig. 8-52f
After Wang Shiqi et al., Hetian Jade of Xinjiang, China, Science Press, fig. 8-52
Imitated surface features
Imitated Gobi surface, panel a: uniform, lifeless pitting with obvious hand-working
Imitated surface Ifig. 8-53a
Imitated Gobi surface, panel b: uniform, lifeless pitting with obvious hand-working
Imitated surface IIfig. 8-53b
Imitated Gobi surface, panel c: uniform, lifeless pitting with obvious hand-working
Imitated surface IIIfig. 8-53c
Imitated Gobi surface, panel d: uniform, lifeless pitting with obvious hand-working
Imitated surface IVfig. 8-53d
Imitated Gobi surface, panel e: uniform, lifeless pitting with obvious hand-working
Imitated surface Vfig. 8-53e
Imitated Gobi surface, panel f: uniform, lifeless pitting with obvious hand-working
Imitated surface VIfig. 8-53f
After Wang Shiqi et al., Hetian Jade of Xinjiang, China, Science Press, fig. 8-53
Gobi skins: true vs faked
Filling residue on natural Gobi material I: iron staining lodged in the etch pits
Filling residue Ifig. 8-54a
Filling residue on natural Gobi material II: iron staining lodged in the etch pits
Filling residue IIfig. 8-54b
Natural soil-stain skin on Gobi material, the staining worked into the body
Natural soil-stain skinfig. 8-55a
A faked soil-stain skin on lode jade, the colour sitting on the surface
Faked soil-stain skinfig. 8-55b
Natural black skin on Gobi material, shading naturally into the body
Natural black skinfig. 8-56a
Section of a faked black skin, the colour only skin-deep
Faked black skin, sectionedfig. 8-56b
After Wang Shiqi et al., Hetian Jade of Xinjiang, China, Science Press, figs. 8-54 – 8-56
Composites in various colours
Composite nephrite carving, panel a: poor stone hidden beneath good, the carving masking the join
Composite Ifig. 8-57a
Composite nephrite carving, panel b: poor stone hidden beneath good, the carving masking the join
Composite IIfig. 8-57b
Composite nephrite carving, panel c: poor stone hidden beneath good, the carving masking the join
Composite IIIfig. 8-57c
After Wang Shiqi et al., Hetian Jade of Xinjiang, China, Science Press, fig. 8-57
The glowing seam under UV
A nephrite composite carving in natural light, the seam hard to spot
In natural lightfig. 8-58a
The same composite under ultraviolet: glue in the seam fluoresces violet-blue
Under ultravioletfig. 8-58b
After Wang Shiqi et al., Hetian Jade of Xinjiang, China, Science Press, fig. 8-58
Chapter X

Telling the Five Provenances by Eye

Today's nephrite comes chiefly from Xinjiang, Qinghai, Xiuyan (Liaoning), Lake Baikal and Chuncheon (Korea) — geologically near-identical and beyond routine instruments. The monograph's eight-point visual method resolves about 70%; the rest needs trace-element and isotope work. Certificates never state origin, so the premium rides wholly on the eye.

OriginColour habitLustre & feelSignature tells
XinjiangWhite, greenish-white, qing; cui-green rareFine, moist, oily, "congealed" — strongest greasy lustre of the fiveLeast cotton; small thin-skinned seeds; Gobi material found nowhere else
QinghaiGreyish white; frequent cui-green and smoke-violetMoist but not oily, "watery", markedly more translucentAbundant water-lines its hallmark; no seed pebbles known
Xiuyan (Liaoning)White rare; yellow-white and yellow-green dominateFairly unctuous, sometimes waxyWell-developed sugar; thick-skinned "river-milled" pebbles — the Hongshan culture's source
Russia (Baikal)Strikingly white — but a "dead" whiteOily yet not moist; partly waxyCotton in clots and "crab-claw" wisps; heavy sugar grading into the flesh
Korea (Chuncheon)White tinged yellow or grey-green, seldom pureWeakest of the five: waxy, resinous, dull and directional"Rice-porridge" cotton (relict carbonate); no sugar, no seeds
Xinjiang nephrite
A white nephrite pendant from Xinjiang
White-jade pendantfig. 9-1a
A greenish-white nephrite fish pendant from Xinjiang
Greenish-white fishfig. 9-1b
A spinach-jade phoenix pendant from Xinjiang
Spinach phoenix pendantfig. 9-1c
A yellow nephrite pendant from Xinjiang
Yellow-jade pendantfig. 9-1d
An ink-flower (qinghua) landscape plaque from Xinjiang
Ink-flower landscape plaquefig. 9-1e
After Wang Shiqi et al., Hetian Jade of Xinjiang, China, Science Press, fig. 9-1
Qinghai nephrite
A white nephrite carving from Qinghai
White carvingfig. 9-2a
A Qinghai nephrite bangle with a cui-green flash
Bangle with a cui-green flashfig. 9-2b
A Qinghai nephrite rough section, marked in-image with smoky-purple, water-lines and cui-green
Rough sectionfig. 9-2c
After Wang Shiqi et al., Hetian Jade of Xinjiang, China, Science Press, fig. 9-2
Xiuyan nephrite
A yellow-green nephrite carving from Xiuyan, Liaoning
Yellow-green carvingfig. 9-3a
A nephrite plaque from Xiuyan, Liaoning
Plaquefig. 9-3b
A skinned nephrite rough from Xiuyan, Liaoning
Skinned roughfig. 9-3c
After Wang Shiqi et al., Hetian Jade of Xinjiang, China, Science Press, fig. 9-3
Russian nephrite
A white nephrite bangle from Russia
White banglefig. 9-4a
A sugar-marked white nephrite bangle from Russia
Sugar-marked white banglefig. 9-4b
A greenish-white nephrite bangle from Russia
Greenish-white banglefig. 9-4c
After Wang Shiqi et al., Hetian Jade of Xinjiang, China, Science Press, fig. 9-4
Korean nephrite
A Korean nephrite bi-disc pendant with a greenish-yellow cast
Bi-disc pendantfig. 9-5a
A Korean nephrite bangle
Banglefig. 9-5b
A Korean nephrite bead strand
Bead strandfig. 9-5c
After Wang Shiqi et al., Hetian Jade of Xinjiang, China, Science Press, fig. 9-5
Sugar-jade bangles
Six sugar-jade bangles in a row, the sugar tone deepening from faint to rich
A run of sugar-jade banglesfig. 9-6
After Wang Shiqi et al., Hetian Jade of Xinjiang, China, Science Press, fig. 9-6
Sugar colouring by provenance
Sugar colouring of Qiemo sugar jade, Xinjiang
Qiemo sugar jade, Xinjiangfig. 9-7a
Sugar colouring of Qinghai nephrite
Qinghai nephritefig. 9-7b
Sugar colouring of Xiuyan nephrite, Liaoning
Xiuyan nephrite, Liaoningfig. 9-7c
Sugar colouring of Russian nephrite
Russian nephritefig. 9-7d
After Wang Shiqi et al., Hetian Jade of Xinjiang, China, Science Press, fig. 9-7
The greasy lustre of Xinjiang nephrite
A sugar-marked nephrite water pot from Xinjiang, lustrous as fat
Sugar-marked water potfig. 9-8a
A nephrite chimera from Xinjiang with the famed greasy lustre
Chimerafig. 9-8b
A Xinjiang nephrite carving with greasy lustre
Pebble carvingfig. 9-8c
After Wang Shiqi et al., Hetian Jade of Xinjiang, China, Science Press, fig. 9-8
Transparency by provenance
Transparency of Xinjiang nephrite, shown as a bangle
Xinjiang nephritefig. 9-9a
Transparency of Qinghai nephrite, shown as a bangle
Qinghai nephritefig. 9-9b
Transparency of Xiuyan nephrite, Liaoning, shown as a bangle
Xiuyan nephrite, Liaoningfig. 9-9c
Transparency of Russian nephrite, shown as a bangle
Russian nephritefig. 9-9d
Transparency of Korean nephrite, shown as a bangle
Korean nephritefig. 9-9e
After Wang Shiqi et al., Hetian Jade of Xinjiang, China, Science Press, fig. 9-9
Fineness by provenance
Fineness of Xinjiang nephrite, shown as a rough slice
Xinjiang nephritefig. 9-10a
Fineness of Qinghai nephrite, shown as a rough slice
Qinghai nephritefig. 9-10b
Fineness of Xiuyan nephrite, Liaoning, shown as a rough slice
Xiuyan nephrite, Liaoningfig. 9-10c
Fineness of Russian nephrite, shown as a rough slice
Russian nephritefig. 9-10d
Fineness of Korean nephrite, shown as a rough slice
Korean nephritefig. 9-10e
After Wang Shiqi et al., Hetian Jade of Xinjiang, China, Science Press, fig. 9-10
Floc vs "rice-porridge" texture
Cotton-floc inclusions in Xinjiang nephrite, backlit
Cotton-floc inclusionsXinjiang · backlit · fig. 9-11a
The
"Rice-porridge" textureKorea · fig. 9-11b
After Wang Shiqi et al., Hetian Jade of Xinjiang, China, Science Press, fig. 9-11
Seed pebbles by provenance
A nephrite seed pebble from Xinjiang
Xinjiang seed pebblefig. 9-12a
A nephrite seed pebble from Russia
Russian seed pebblefig. 9-12b
Hemo jade of Liaoning and a Russian pebble in one frame (labelled in-image)
Hemo jade and a Russian pebblefig. 9-12c
After Wang Shiqi et al., Hetian Jade of Xinjiang, China, Science Press, fig. 9-12
Chapter XI

Sources & Editorial Note

Compiled principally upon Wang Shiqi et al., "Hetian Jade of Xinjiang, China" (2 vols., Science Press, ISBN 978-7-03-074236-0) — the authoritative monograph by scholars of Peking University and the Palace Museum, source of every measured datum, classification scheme, deposit survey and authentication method in this volume — together with GB/T 38821—2020 and GB/T 16552. Licensing of the book's plates is being sought; passages marked "plate pending" will be filled in due course. The text is this archive's own redaction; any infelicity is the editors' alone.
EIGHT MILLENNIA OF NEPHRITE — THE HISTORY →     THE JADEITE VOLUME →
Frequently Asked

Hetian Jade — Frequently Asked

01How is mutton-fat white jade identified?

The trade judges by four "highs": unctuousness, whiteness, fineness and purity — a congealed, faintly warm white with strong greasy lustre, no visible grain under raking light, and the touch of rendered fat. It comes almost exclusively from river pebbles; the only lode material conceded mutton-fat rank is the "95 Yutian" of 1995, now exhausted. Note that no national standard defines mutton-fat grade: the term as used in shops is largely commercial, so judge by comparison and certification.

02Seed pebbles vs mountain material — why the price gap?

Nephrite occurs in four modes: mountain (quarried from the lode, large and angular), shanliushui (lightly water-worn), seed (river-milled for aeons into skinned, streamlined pebbles) and Gobi (sand-blasted on piedmont gravel plains). Value ranks seed > Gobi > shanliushui > mountain — and not merely by taste: measured hardness follows the same order (6.44 / 6.41 / 6.28 / 5.90), because aeons of transport are themselves a natural cull, shattering the loose and fissured and leaving only the dense heart.

03Can Russian, Qinghai or Korean material be called "Hetian jade"?

Yes. Under national standard GB/T 38821-2020, "Hetian jade" names all qualifying tremolite jade regardless of origin, and certificates do not state provenance. Yet the market pays a large origin premium, and origin can only be judged by eye (about 70% of cases): Xinjiang material is fine, moist and oily with a congealed weight; Qinghai is moist but not oily, full of water-lines, more translucent; Russian is strikingly but deadly white, its cotton in clots and crab-claws, its sugar heavy; Korean runs yellowish or grey-green with waxy lustre and "rice-porridge" cotton. Treat origin claims and certificates as two separate questions.

04Does red nephrite exist?

Despite the trade saying "first red, second yellow, third black, fourth mutton-fat", a systematic survey of more than a hundred deposits in southern Xinjiang found no primary red nephrite. What the market calls red jade is a fully red-skinned river pebble — cut it open and the body is white, greenish-white or sugar. Nephrite's primary colours are white, qing, yellow, green and black; sugar is a secondary tint from goethite and other iron minerals seeping along fissures.

05How do you tell nephrite from quartzite, "Afghan jade" and other look-alikes?

Refractive index and density settle it: nephrite spot-reads about 1.61 at SG 2.95. Quartzite jade reads 1.54 / 2.64–2.70 and hefts light; chalcedony 1.53–1.54 / 2.65 with conchoidal fracture; serpentine 1.56–1.57 / 2.57, soft enough for a pocket knife; marble jade ("Afghan jade") 1.48–1.65 / 2.7 at Mohs 3 and fizzes in dilute hydrochloric acid; albite jade ("water foam") 1.52–1.53 / 2.6–2.63, showing foam-like specks against the light; wollastonite comes closest on paper (1.60–1.61 / 2.78–2.91) but is Mohs 4.5–5 and never unctuous. By eye: nephrite is cryptocrystalline with greasy lustre and splintery fracture, while the imitations look granular and vitreous.